Monthly Archives: August 2026

How a Molecular Cloud Collapses Into a Star

Making a star means compressing gas by something like twenty-four orders of magnitude. The warm neutral interstellar medium, the ordinary atomic gas between the stars, holds roughly a third of a hydrogen atom per cubic centimetre at a temperature of … Continue reading

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Why $R_{\mu\nu}=0$ does not imply $R_{\mu\nu\rho\sigma}=0$

Almost everyone makes this mistake once, and it’s a good one to make. You learn the Einstein field equations. You learn that in vacuum, with no matter and no energy and no cosmological constant, they collapse down to something very … Continue reading

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Derivation of the Cosmic-Ray Diffusion Coefficient from Pitch-Angle Scattering

Cosmic rays arrive at Earth from every direction almost perfectly evenly, to about one part in a thousand. That’s a disaster if you wanted to know where they came from, because they’re charged and the Galaxy is magnetised, so whatever … Continue reading

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The rubber sheet gets the geometry right and the mechanism wrong!

You have seen this demonstration. Somebody stretches a rubber sheet over a frame, drops a bowling ball in the middle, and the sheet sags. Then they roll a marble across it and the marble curves toward the bowling ball, maybe … Continue reading

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A Scientist Before “Scientist”

Mary Somerville is so difficult to put into words that it’s funny. To be honest, who was she? Although you would be correct in calling her a mathematician, you would then be required to clarify the astronomy. The word “astronomer” … Continue reading

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